话语分析中的基本概念(语言学文库－第3辑)

《话语分析中的基本概念》以广义的功能语言学和认知语言学为理论依据，详解了话语分析中的一些基本、实用的概念，探讨了“语篇类型”、“话语的共同特点”、“参与者所指”等问题。作者不囿于一种理论，集各家所长，为读者提供了一种话语分析的研究方法。内文浅显易懂，篇幅适中，是理想的话语分析方面的入门书。

Preface
1-4 Types of Text
1 Means of Production: Number of Speakers.
2 Type of Content: Text Genres
3 Manner of Production: Style and Register
4 Medium of Production: Oral Versus Written

5-15 Common Characteristics in Discourses
5 Coherence
6 Cohesion
7 Thematic Groupings and Thematic Discontinuities .
8 Text Charting
9 Mental Representations Revisited
10 Activation Status, Definiteness, and Referential Status
11 Discourse-Pragmatic Structuring of Sentences
12 Foreground and Background Information
13 Signaling Relations Between Propositions
14 The Reporting of Conversation
15 Conventionalized Aspects of Text Organization

16-18 Participant Reference
16 Basic Notions of Reference
17 Strategies of Reference
18 A Methodology for Analyzing Reference Patterns.
Appendices
Appendix A: “Winds of Terror” .
Appendix B: “The Train Ride”.
Appendix C: Extract from “The Healer and His Wife”
References
Index

Medium of Production: Oral Versus
Written
This chapter summarizes the most common differences that have been observed between oral and written texts of the same genre. Such differences show up, for instance, when comparing oral and written versions of a narrative given by an accomplished storyteller, or when comparing recorded and printed versions of a political address. As Bartsch says (1997:45), "Different genres have different features, and it is not helpful to compare oranges to apples." Consequently, comparisons between oral texts of one genre and written texts of another may be misleading (see Chafe 1985b for a comparison between dinner table conversation and academic prose which falls into this trap).
Bartsch's article not only compares an oral and a written version of the same narrative in an Algonquian language of North America, but also in cludes a useful bibliography of recent publications on variations between speech and writing.
4.1 Frequency of repetition
"Spoken language uses a lot of repetition. But in written language there is a limit to how much repetition can be tolerated by readers" (Aaron 1998:3).Bartsch's comparison of the oral and written forms of an Algonquian story revealed that the same teaching point was made four or five times in the oral version, but only once in the written one. Similarly, if a reported speech was longer than one sentence, the SPEECH ORIENTER (e.g., he sa/d, sometimes called "quotation margin", "quote tag", etc.) was often repeated in the oral version,but not in the written one.
A distinctive form of repetition frequently found in oral material is TAIL-HEAD LINKAGE (Thompson and Longacre 1985:209-213). This consists of the repetition in a subordinate clause, at the beginning (the "head") of a new sentence, of at least the main verb of the previous sentence (the "tail"),8 as in...he arrived at the house. When he arrived at the house, he saw a snake. Johnston (1976:66) found that tail-head linkage, considered the "life blood of narrative discourse in most Papua New Guinea languages", was edited out of written texts by native speakers. In oral texts in some languages, EVIDENRIALS (or "verification markers", such as 'witnessed', 'hearsay', or 'deduced', which indicate the source of evidence of the information being presented——see Barnes 1984 and Palmer 1986) occur in every sentence. In written texts, however, once the source of the information has been established, evidentials tend to be used only sparingly.
4.2 Deviations from default orders
Variations from the default or unmarked order of constituents in clauses or sentences are more frequent in oral than in written material. This is because spoken utterances are accompanied by intonation contours that unite constituents into larger units, and by pauses that help to signal boundaries between units. Such variations may be less acceptable in written material. For instance, Chafe (1985b:115) observes that antitopics in English (Never been to a wedding dance. Neithmr of us.) tend to be used only in oral material.
In the Inga (Quechuan) language of Colombia, the default position of the verb is at the end of its clause. In oral material, it is common for the verb to be followed by nominal or adverbial constituents, and for main clauses to be followed by subordinate ones. When such texts were written down and read aloud, however, native speakers invariably ended sentences with the main verb and began a new sentence with the material that followed it, even though the punctuation indicated that the sentence concerned had not ended.
4.3 Organization
Written style is more concise and better organized, and introduces new information at a faster pace (Chafe 1992:268). Bartsch found that purpose 8Neither "head" nor "tail" is used here in a common linguistic sense. In particular, "head" does not refer to grammatical head, and "tail" does not refer to the entity to be discussed under that name in chapter 11.
clauses were much more frequent in the written form of the Algonquian story than in the oral version. Conversely, the oral version had "more author intrusions, extra explanatory material that wasn't part of the story line" (1997:45).
Groupings of sentences tend to be longer in written than in oral mate rial. For example, oral material tends to organize reported speech in pairings of initiating moves and resolving moves (see chapter 1), whereas written material tends to be organized into larger groupings (Levinsohn 2000:218-219).
4.4 Preciseness
Because writers have more time to think of "the right word" than speakers, written text is characterized by more careful word choice than even the most carefully planned oral material (Biber 1988:163). In contrast, spoken language often uses HEDGES (Lakoff 1972) like sort of and kind of,as in He started sort of circling (Chafe 1985b:121).
Chafe (p. 114) also notes that the English lexicon consists of three kinds of items: COLLOQUIAL VOCABUlaRY that is used predominantly in speaking (e.g., guy, stuff, scary), LITERARY VOCABUI~RY that is used predominantly in writing (e.g., d/sp/ay, heed), and VOCABULARY THAT IS NEUTRAL with respect to this distinction (neutral equivalents of the above colloquial and literary words are man, material, frightening show, pay attention to).
4.5 Paralinguistic signals
"Spoken language relies heavily on prosody (pitch, pause, tempo, voice quality, etc.) and body language for deixis, respect, interpropositional relations, and a host of other categories" (Aaron 1998:3). Written language relies on punctuation and description to convey similar effects, but generally in an under-coded manner.
Certain deictics, such as indefinite th/s in English (I woke up with this headache), may also be restricted to oral material (Chafe 1985b:115).
4.6 Practical applications
Differences between oral and written language have specific applicability to many types of practical linguistic work.
In language teaching (including ESL), for example, we note that the range of skills needed by new readers only partially overlaps with those needed by new speakers.